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create lift through the generation of a high(er) pressure area below the wing and a low(er) pressure area above the wing; this is what contributes to the lifting force. The air under the wing, since it is of higher relative pressure, tends to flow outwards towards the wing tip and wing root. The low-pressure air above the wing tends to flow inwards from the wing tip and root towards the wing centre. At the wingtips, outward-flowing air from beneath the wing "rolls over" to meet the inward-flowing air from above the wing, resulting in wingtip vortices.

Wingtip vortices are a major cause of induced drag, which refers to any drag created as a side-effect of generating lift. Reducing this form of drag leads to a number of widely-used design considerations found on many aircraft. Gliders, for instance, use very long wings with a high aspect ratio in order to reduce the size of the wingtip in relation to the size of the wing as a whole, thereby reducing the contribution of induced drag. Other aircraft sometimes include winglets to actively disrupt the airflow over the tip, to the same end.

It is thought that the phenomenon of ground effect is caused by the ground 'interrupting' the wingtip vortices[citation needed]. When a wing is flown very close to the ground, wingtip vortices are unable to form effectively due to the obstruction of the ground. The result is lower induced drag, which increases the performance of the aircraft while it is experiencing the ground effect.

[edit] Factors affecting ground effect

Factors affecting ground effect are numerous, and may include the wing's area, its chord length, and its angle-of-attack as it nears the surface in a landing attitude, as well as the weight, speed, and configuration of the aircraft, and wing loading (aircraft weight per unit-area of wing).

Ground effect, often described as a 'cushion', is thought to be an increase in air pressure which occurs below a wing when it comes into close proximity with the ground. Ground effect begins to be noticable (to both the pilot, and an onlooker) when the aircraft is within 1-1.5 times it's own wingspan, from the ground. Ground effect however, only becomes extremely pronounced (lift can momentarily multiply by up to 1.4 that of free-air lift) within about half the aircraft's wingspan from the ground. Of course due to the effect of spoilers, and high wing loading, this effect is only dramatically noticed in smaller, less complex aircraft, usually weighing less than 12,500 lbs. Ground effect is a major factor in aircraft "floating" down the runway, and is the reason that low-wing aircraft have a tendancy to float more than the high-wing varieties.

Ground effect during take-off is thought to be a cause of many aircraft accidents. A small plane loaded beyond gross weight capabilities may be able to take off under ground effect, thanks to the 'artifically' low stall speed due to the decreased induced drag. But it may not be able to climb beyond a certain point. Once the pilot climbs out of ground effect wingtip vortices will form, the wings will stall, and the aircraft will suddenly descend - usually resulting in a crash.

Sailplanes may be less affected due to the short chord and very long wingspan (in other words, high aspect ratio) for weight, which minimizes the salience of induced drag caused by wingtip vortices. On the other hand, since sailplanes generally are built to minimize all form drag and parasitic drag as well, the reduction in the induced drag caused by ground effect can in fact effectively increase flight performance, resulting in an enhanced glide ratio. Pilots of sailplanes who seek to exploit this phenomenon on landing are said to be performing a "penetration approach." A successful penetration approach would involve diving at a speed higher than the usual optimal glide speed for a given sailplane (which would result in a sub-optimal glide ratio on the descent), and then flaring and holding the lowest possible altitude above the ground, at this relatively high speed. Theoretically the positive effect of ground effect - decreased drag - could result in a final stopping place farther than would have been achieved, had the pilot simply flown the speed resulting in the best glide ratio. Obviously, a penetration approach is fraught with risks, and it is not a sure bet that performance will be increased; thus it is not a generally recommended means of improving glide distance.

Some critics of Howard Hughes' massive Spruce Goose claim that the famous flying boat's first (and only) flight was due entirely to ground effect and that the craft was incapable of sustaining flight above a very low altitude. It is probably true that the Spruce Goose was underpowered in its current configuration - development of the engines the plane was designed to carry was canceled before completion, and as a result, the goose was running at probably 60% of its designed power. Nevertheless the power necessary to bring a seaplane to flight speeds is greater than land-planes, and the height the goose reached was probably well beyond the ground effect for such a heavy-lifter.[citation needed]

[edit] Ground effect and Helicopters

Rotary Wing aircraft experience performance changes associated with ground effect just like other aircraft. A helicopter hovering close to the ground will require less power than when hovering at height.

Following an engine failure (depending on weight and environmental conditions), a multi engine helicopter may be able to hover in ground effect but not outside it.

This effect can be described at three different levels of understanding. Basic, Intermediate and Advanced.

[edit] Basic

As with a fixed wing surface a helicopter's blades produce a cushion of air when close the ground which helps to support the aircraft.

Wind, surface slope and surface texture will all have an effect on how effectively the high pressure cushion is maintained under the rotor.

[edit] Intermediate

When hovering in free air a rotor disc produces a duct effect with an induced downwards movement of air above the rotor. Rather than being stationary, when the air hits the rotor it already has a downward vector as it attempts to fill the region of low pressure left by air below it which has already been forced downwards by the rotor. To hover the rotor disc must produce a vertical force in the manner of Force = Mass x Acceleration where mass is dependent on number of rotors, RPM and rotor diameter and acceleration by the difference in the initial air vector and its resulting vector. Assuming mass moved is constant then a helicopter hovering in free air will be produce a force equivalent to V2(Speed after passing through the rotor) - V1(Starting speed of air) where V1 is some value above 0 given that the air is already moving downwards before reaching the rotor.

When close to the surface (generally considered 1/3 - 2/3 rotor diameter) air forced downwards through the rotor disc is restricted in its flow by the ground. This produces an area of high pressure below the disc and in turn, reduces the duct effect and hence the downwards velocity of the air above the disc. This reduces V1 while V2 remains relatively static so the value of V2 - V1 increases. From the equation F = M x A we can see that the 'lift' of the rotor disc is greater when in ground effect.

[edit] Advanced

The relative air flow meeting the advancing face of a rotor blade in a hovering helicopter is determined by the speed of rotation (the blade moving forward into the air) and the induced flow (the induced downwards movement of air above the rotor). Rotational air flow is taken as horizontal, induced flow as vertically down and the relative airflow as the resulting vector. Through geometry the angle of attack(AoA) of the rotor blade will decrease as the inflow increases and the relative airflow direction moves closer to the chordline.

When the helicopter is in ground effect the induced flow is decreased as described above. This moves the relative airflow vector closer to the horizontal and increases the AoA for a given blade pitch. This increases the lift produced by the rotor disc and the helicopter will start to accelerate vertically. The vertical movement will induce its own inflow reducing the AoA again until a point of equilibrium is reached. In reality a pilot will lower the collective slightly -> reducing rotor pitch -> reducing AoA -> reducing lift and the helicopter will hover in ground effect(IGE) with a lower power setting than that required out of ground effect.